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The aorta is the main artery of the human body. It arises from the left ventricle of the heart and travels superiorly to form the ascending aorta. It then...

Battle Sign (also called Battle's Sign) is defined as bruising over the mastoid process. It is retroauricular or mastoid ecchymosis that is typically the...

The FDA recognized the combination of acetylsalicylic acid (250 mg), acetaminophen (250 mg), and caffeine (65 mg) as safe and effective in treating acute...

Hydrocodone is a potent analgesic commonly prescribed for moderate-to-severe pain management in postoperative settings, trauma patients, and individuals with...

The ear is an incredible organ of hearing and equilibrium divided into three anatomic parts: the external, middle, and internal ear. The external ear, or outer...

The uterus is a muscular, hollow organ in the female pelvis that is approximately 5 cm wide, 8 cm long, and 4 cm thick with a volume of 80 to 200 mL. A...

Daptomycin is a cyclic lipopeptide antibiotic derived from the organism Streptomyces roseosporus used to treat various bacterial infections caused by...

Napalm is a weaponized mixture of chemicals designed to create a highly flammable and gelatinous liquid. The initial thickening agent was a combination of...

X-ray examinations are generally classified into 3 categories: radiography, fluoroscopy, and computed tomography. Radiography employs film or a solid-state...

The fascial system consists of the components of solid (muscles, bone, cartilage, and adipose tissue) and fluid (blood, lymph).[1][2] The myofascial system...

This activity for healthcare professionals is designed to enhance the learners' competence in using pyridoxine, both as a vitamin supplement and as a...

As a common problem among adults, plantar heel pain can lead to significant disability and impairment of activities of daily living. Plantar heel pain can be...

The neck is the bridge between the head and the rest of the body. It is located in between the mandible and the clavicle, connecting the head directly to the...

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the...

The cranium (from the Greek word krania, meaning skull) is the most cephalad aspect of the axial skeleton. The cranium, or skull, is composed of 22 bones anis...

Obesity in the United States has been increasing at an alarming rate in the past 50 years, and presently over 98.7 million US residents are affected. In 2014,...

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a multisystem disorder and the most common genetic disease in the United States, affecting 1 in 500 African Americans. About 1 in...

Retinal dystrophies or inherited retinal diseases (IRD) are a group of degenerative disorders of the retina with clinical and genetic heterogeneity.[1] Common...

Studies regarding hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) on angiogenesis demonstrate an increased rate of blood vessel formation. As such, HBOT is a potent though...

Preterm labor (PTL) is defined as cervical change that develops in response to regular uterine contractions occurring between 20 0/7 and 36 6/7 weeks of...

Hyperbilirubinemia is a condition defined as elevated serum or plasma bilirubin levels above the reference range of the laboratory, and it is due to disorders...

Beta-lactamase inhibitors are co-administered with beta-lactam antimicrobials to prevent antimicrobial resistance. They do this by inhibiting serine...

Nitrofurantoin is an antibiotic medication that is used for the treatment of uncomplicated lower urinary tract infections. It is effective against most...

Hyperacusis is a rare disorder of loudness perception, where sounds that are ordinarily considered innocuous become intolerable.[1] Patients may perceive this...

Koppel and Thompson first described anterior tarsal tunnel syndrome (ATTS) in 1960.[1] ATTS, also known as deep peroneal nerve (DPN) entrapment, is a...

In recent years, several high-profile police incidents have resulted in law enforcement and civilian injury, prompting the development of tactical emergency...

Melanin is a natural pigment found in various tissues throughout the body, most notably in the skin, hair, and eyes. Melanin is synthesized in the epidermis by...

Bone fracture healing: is an intricate and fluent regenerative process that aims at restoring the damaged bone to its pre-injury state and cellular...

Tuberculosis (TB) is a preventable and, in most cases, curable disease. Nonetheless, it remains a formidable public health challenge, killing more than 1.25...

Primary hyperaldosteronism is an underdiagnosed cause of hypertension. This condition is classically associated with the presence of both hypertension and...

The spine, or vertebral column, is a segmental set of 33 bones and associated soft tissues in the subcranial portion of the axial skeleton. It is subdivided...

Remdesivir is a broad-spectrum antiviral agent that has showcased its efficacy against a spectrum of viruses, including filoviruses (eg, Ebola, Marburg),...

A persistent cough producing sputum for at least 3 months annually over 2 consecutive years characterizes chronic bronchitis in adults. Goblet cell hyperplasia...

Acute stress disorder (ASD) was first outlined in 1994 at the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV) as a new...

Diet and exercise strategies to lose weight abound. People attempting to lose weight must achieve a net caloric deficit to succeed. After an often steady and...

Xylazine is a non-narcotic compound utilized for sedation, pain relief, and muscle relaxation in veterinary medicine, where it is often referred to as...

Meniere disease (MD) is a disorder of the inner ear characterized by hearing loss, tinnitus, and vertigo. In most cases, it is slowly progressive and...

Diverticulosis is a clinical condition in which multiple sac-like protrusions (diverticula) develop along the gastrointestinal tract. Though diverticula may...

The lymphatic system is an important and often underappreciated component of the circulatory, immune, and metabolic systems. It is composed of lymphatic fluid,...

Cervical insufficiency is a condition in which the cervix painlessly dilates during the second or early third trimester due to a functional or structural...

Vestibular neuritis, also known by the name vestibular neuronitis, is thought to be caused by inflammation of the vestibular portion of the eighth cranial...

Testosterone is FDA-approved as replacement therapy in men with low testosterone levels and those with symptoms of hypogonadism. Symptoms highly suggestive of...

Biliary atresia is an obstructive cholangiopathy of unknown etiology involving both the intrahepatic and extrahepatic bile ducts. It presents in the neonatal...

Antiparasitic drugs are a group of medications used in the management and treatment of infections by parasites, including protozoa, helminths, and...

Necrotizing fasciitis is a subset of aggressive skin and soft tissue infections that cause muscle fascia and subcutaneous tissue necrosis. This infection...

Constipation is a symptom or condition characterized by difficult and infrequent bowel movements, typically 3 or fewer times a week. It is one of the most...

Promethazine is a medication used to manage and treat allergic conditions, nausea and vomiting, motion sickness, and sedation. Promethazine also has off-label...

Medicine has made significant progress in understanding circulation in the past few hundred years. For millennia medicine believed in the "four humors" and...

The islets of Langerhans are clusters of pancreatic cells discovered by Dr. Paul Langerhans, a pathologist who also discovered the dendritic Langerhans cells...

Multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT) is a supraventricular tachycardia with a rapid, irregular atrial rhythm arising from multiple ectopic foci within the...

The auditory system governs the detection and interpretation of environmental sound. Peripheral and central components constitute this organ system. The outer,...

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) encompasses clinically significant somatic and psychological manifestations during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, leading...

The intrinsic factor (IF) is a glycoprotein produced by the parietal cells (oxyntic cells) located at the gastric body and fundus. It plays a crucial role in...

Baclofen is a medication used to treat muscle spasticity, particularly in patients with conditions like spinal cord lesions and multiple sclerosis. Initially...

Drug scheduling became mandated under The Federal Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 (also known as the Controlled Substances Act)....

Alkalosis is a pathophysiological condition characterized by the buildup of excess base or alkali in the body, leading to an abnormally high serum pH (arterial...

A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleurae...

Amphetamine abuse is widespread and associated with a significant impact on cardiovascular and neurological systems in overdose. In many parts of the world,...

Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) is a progressive incremental improvement of processes, safety, and patient care. The goal of CQI may include improvement...

The normal physiology of lactation begins well before the newborn's initial latch. It requires the breast to change in composition, size, and shape during each...

Breast augmentation is a surgical procedure where fat transfer, breast implants (saline or silicone), or both are used within the native breast to increase...

Polyneuropathies are dysfunction in multiple nerves and divided into 2 broad categories: axonal or demyelinating. Axonal neuropathies cause symptoms related to...

Diffuse esophageal spasm (DES) is a rare esophageal motility disorder characterized by simultaneous, uncoordinated, or rapidly propagated contractions that are...

Morphine remains a foundational agent in the treatment of moderate to severe pain, both acute and chronic, with particular value in oncology, palliative care,...

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan. T gondii can infect all warm-blooded...